{"id":13888,"date":"2022-09-02T12:54:43","date_gmt":"2022-09-02T09:54:43","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/oxidative-stress-associated-diseases-and-laboratory-evaluation\/"},"modified":"2026-09-02T23:26:42","modified_gmt":"2026-09-02T20:26:42","slug":"oxidative-stress-associated-diseases-and-laboratory-evaluation","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/en\/oxidative-stress-associated-diseases-and-laboratory-evaluation\/","title":{"rendered":"OXIDATIVE STRESS, ASSOCIATED DISEASES, AND LABORATORY EVALUATION"},"content":{"rendered":"<style>.elementor-13888 .elementor-element.elementor-element-19c2cd1e > .elementor-widget-container{margin:0px 0px 0px 0px;padding:0px 0px 0px 0px;}.elementor-13888 .elementor-element.elementor-element-ab16a74{text-align:justify;}.elementor-13888 .elementor-element.elementor-element-e0f6736{text-align:justify;}.elementor-13888 .elementor-element.elementor-element-901ba16{text-align:justify;}<\/style>\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-post\" data-elementor-id=\"13888\" class=\"elementor elementor-13888 elementor-8096\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-2981b56c elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"2981b56c\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-510efea7\" data-id=\"510efea7\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b2fb59b elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"b2fb59b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">OXIDATIVE STRESS, ASSOCIATED DISEASES, AND LABORATORY EVALUATION\n<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-19c2cd1e elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"19c2cd1e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<blockquote>\u201cUnder normal physiological conditions, there is a balance between the free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are constantly produced in cells and the antioxidants that interact with them. A disruption of this balance in favor of free radicals and ROS\u2014that is, the accumulation of radicals such as superoxide within the cell or the failure of endogenous defense systems\u2014is defined as oxidative stress.\u201d<\/blockquote>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-c04dce4 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default\" data-id=\"c04dce4\" data-element_type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-2dc740c\" data-id=\"2dc740c\" data-element_type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-dcb28f6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"dcb28f6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"436\" height=\"387\" src=\"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/antioksidanlar-1.png\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-13890\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/antioksidanlar-1.png 436w, https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/antioksidanlar-1-300x266.png 300w, https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/antioksidanlar-1-100x89.png 100w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 436px) 100vw, 436px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ab16a74 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"ab16a74\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><b>Free Radicals<\/b><\/p><p>These are compounds that contain unpaired electrons in one of their outer orbitals. They are reactive and short-lived.<br\/>Free radicals can be produced as a result of normal metabolic processes or through many reactions necessary for energy production within the cell. <\/p><p>It is generally accepted that free radicals are formed in three main ways.<\/p><p>1- The homolytic cleavage of a normal covalently bonded molecule, in which one of the shared electrons remains in each fragment.<br\/><span style=\"background-color: inherit; font-family: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-weight );\">X : Y \u2192 X\u2022 + Y\u2022<\/span><\/p><p>2- When a normal molecule loses an electron<br\/>A &#8211; e- \u2192 A.+ e<\/p><p>3- The addition of a single electron to a normal molecule<br\/>A + e- \u2192 A\u2022-<\/p><p>It is well known that these radicals, once produced, affect membrane lipids, intracellular proteins, and nucleic acids, leading to changes in the structure and function of these macromolecules and causing cellular damage.<\/p><p><b>Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)<\/b><\/p><p>Oxygen in the atmosphere is called molecular oxygen (O\u2082) or dioxygen. A small portion of normal oxygen is reduced during metabolism in cellular compartments\u2014primarily the mitochondria\u2014and converted into reactive oxygen species. The main reactive oxygen species are the superoxide radical (O\u2082\u22c5\u207b), the hydroxyl radical (OH\u2022), and hydrogen peroxide (H\u2082O\u2082). The first two are free radicals, while hydrogen peroxide is a prooxidant.   <\/p><p><b>Antioxidants<\/b><\/p><p>Substances that can prevent or delay the oxidation of substances in cells\u2014such as lipids, proteins, and DNA\u2014by free radicals are called antioxidants, and the mechanisms by which they function are referred to as antioxidant defense systems. Antioxidants prevent cellular damage by transferring electrons to free radicals. <\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c5fdc11 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"c5fdc11\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" width=\"369\" height=\"201\" src=\"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Screenshot-2022-09-02T160213.694.png\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-13891\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Screenshot-2022-09-02T160213.694.png 369w, https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Screenshot-2022-09-02T160213.694-300x163.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 369px) 100vw, 369px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e0f6736 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"e0f6736\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><b>Antioxidants have four different mechanisms:<\/b><\/p><p>(1) The cleansing effect involves neutralizing free oxygen radicals by either trapping them or converting oxidants into weaker molecules. Antioxidant enzymes and micromolecules work in this way. <br>(2) Antioxidant effect: The process of neutralizing oxidants by transferring a hydrogen atom to them, or reducing their effects or reaction rates. Vitamins and flavonoids exert their effects in this way. <br>(3) Repair effect: the repair of biological damage caused by free radicals to structures such as lipids, proteins, and DNA.<br>(4) Chain-breaking effect: binding free oxygen radicals, breaking their chains, and inhibiting their activity.<\/p><p>Antioxidants also remove oxygen from the environment or reduce its concentration locally, and they remove catalytic metal ions from the environment. These mechanisms can also be included in their mechanisms of action. <\/p><p><b>Antioxidants;<\/b><\/p><p>They are classified into two groups: endogenous (antioxidant enzymes, etc.) and<br\/>exogenous (vitamins, etc.).<\/p><p><b>Table 1. Exogenous Antioxidants<br\/><\/b><br\/> <b>Antioxidant &#8211; Mechanism of Action<br\/><\/b> Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) &#8211; Scavenges hydroxyl radicals (OH\u2022).<br\/> Vitamin A (\u03b2-Carotene) &#8211; Scavenges fat-soluble radicals and singlet oxygen.<br\/> Vitamin E &#8211; Fat-soluble, exhibits chain-breaking activity.<\/p><p>Phenolic compounds\u2014which are commonly found in vegetables, fruits, spices, and grains\u2014as well as flavonoids such as resveratrol, quercetin, and catechin, along with selenium and zinc, are other important exogenous antioxidants.<\/p><p><b>Table 2. Endogenous Antioxidants <br><\/b><br><b>Non-Enzymatic Compounds<br\/><\/b>, Albumin\u2014Binds to copper and heme groups, removes HOCl from the environment.<br>Seruloplasmin &#8211; Binds copper ions and uses H\u2082O\u2082 to remove copper  <span style=\"background-color: inherit; font-family: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-weight );\">facilitates its reoxidation.<br><\/span><span style=\"background-color: inherit; font-family: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-weight );\">Transferrin &#8211; Binds iron ions in the ferric state (Fe\u00b3\u207a)<br><\/span><span style=\"background-color: inherit; font-family: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-weight );\">Lactoferrin &#8211; Binds ferric iron ions (Fe\u00b3\u207a) at low pH levels <\/span><span style=\"background-color: inherit; font-family: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-weight );\">.<br\/><\/span><span style=\"background-color: inherit; font-family: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-weight );\">Haptoglobin &#8211; Binds to hemoglobin.<br><\/span><span style=\"background-color: inherit; font-family: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-weight );\">Hemopexin &#8211; Binds to the heme group.<br><\/span><span style=\"background-color: inherit; font-family: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-weight );\">Bilirubin &#8211; Scavenges peroxyl radicals.<br><\/span><span style=\"background-color: inherit; font-family: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-weight );\">Glucose &#8211; Scavenges hydroxyl radicals (OH\u2022).<br><\/span><span style=\"background-color: inherit; font-family: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-weight );\">Urate &#8211; Clears free radicals and binds metals.<br><\/span><span style=\"background-color: inherit; font-family: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-weight );\">Melatonin &#8211; Neutralizes hydroxyl radicals (OH\u2022).<br><\/span><span style=\"background-color: inherit; font-family: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-weight );\">Mucus &#8211; Removes hydroxyl radicals (OH\u2022).<\/span><\/p><p><b>Enzymes<br\/><\/b>, Superoxide Dismutase (SOD)<\/p><p>It scavenges the superoxide radical (O2-)<br\/>O2- + 2H+ \u2192 H2O2 + O2<\/p><p>Catalase (CAT)<\/p><p>It removes hydrogen peroxide (if present in high concentrations) from the environment.<br\/>2H\u2082O\u2082 + O\u2082 \u2192 2H\u2082O + O\u2082<\/p><p>Glutathione peroxidase (GPx)<\/p><p>It removes hydrogen peroxide (if present at low concentrations) from the environment.<br\/>H\u2082O\u2082 + 2 GSH \u2192 GSSG + 2H\u2082O<\/p><p>Cytochrome Oxidase<\/p><p>By preventing the release of reactive oxygen species into the environment during the reduction of oxygen in water, it inhibits the formation of ROS (H\u2082O\u2082, OH\u2022, O\u2082\u207b).<\/p><p>GSH: Reduced glutathione, GSSG: Oxidized glutathione<\/p><p><b>Diseases Associated with Oxidative Stress<\/b><\/p><p>Reactive oxygen species formed as a result of increased oxidative stress attack the double-bonded groups in intracellular lipids and proteins, as well as the double bonds in DNA bases, and trigger chain oxidation reactions by removing a hydrogen atom. As a result, macromolecules such as intracellular lipids, proteins, and DNA are damaged, leading to cellular damage or cell death. <\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4bc9a97 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"4bc9a97\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" width=\"393\" height=\"160\" src=\"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Screenshot-2022-09-02T160450.564.png\" class=\"attachment-large size-large wp-image-13892\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Screenshot-2022-09-02T160450.564.png 393w, https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Screenshot-2022-09-02T160450.564-300x122.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 393px) 100vw, 393px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-901ba16 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"901ba16\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><b>Oxidative stress triggered by free radicals:<br\/><\/b><br\/> 1. Neurological disorders (such as Parkinson\u2019s, Alzheimer\u2019s, Huntington\u2019s, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, depression, and memory loss),<br\/>2. Immune system disorders,<br\/>3. Diabetes,<br\/>4. Rheumatoid arthritis,<br\/>5. Kidney diseases (glomerulonephritis, tubulointerstitial nephritis, renal failure, proteinuria, and uremia),<br\/>6. Cardiovascular disorders (atherosclerosis, ischemia, hypertension, cardiomyopathy, cardiac hypertrophy, and congestive heart failure, etc.),<br\/>7. Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases,<br\/>8. Ischemia-reperfusion injury,<br\/>9. Inflammatory diseases,<br\/>10. It is believed to contribute to the development of over a hundred diseases, including cancer.<br\/>Furthermore, the progressive nature of oxidative damage caused by free radicals contributes to aging and the onset of age-related degenerative diseases (such as cataracts and atherosclerosis).<\/p>\n<p><b>Laboratory Tests Used to Assess Oxidative Stress<\/b><\/p><b>\n<\/b><p><b><\/b>The reactivity and short half-lives of free radicals are a major factor preventing the direct measurement of these substances. For this reason, many of the methods developed to measure these substances and their products in various tissues and materials are indirect and do not directly measure free radicals. <\/p>\n<p>Lipid peroxidation occurs through a chain reaction in which unsaturated fatty acids in membrane phospholipids react with oxygen to form lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH). As a result of a series of reactions, MDA (malondialdehyde), certain other aldehydes, conjugated dienes, and volatile &nbsp;<span style=\"background-color: inherit; font-family: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-weight );\">Products such as hydrocarbons are released. By identifying one of these released intermediate products, lipid <\/span><span style=\"background-color: inherit; font-family: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-family ), Sans-serif; font-size: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-size ); font-weight: var( --e-global-typography-primary-font-weight );\">peroxidation and, indirectly, free radicals are measured.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>By measuring the levels of the antioxidant enzymes Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) and Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx), one can gain insight into these components of the antioxidant system.<br\/>Antioxidant vitamins\u2014such as Vitamin A, Vitamin C, and Vitamin E\u2014can be measured using methods like spectrophotometry or the more sensitive HPLC, while extracellular antioxidants such as uric acid, bilirubin, and albumin can be determined using routine colorimetric methods. Measurements of plasma selenium, intracellular zinc in erythrocytes, and plasma levels of ceruloplasmin, haptoglobin, transferrin, and hemopexin are also valuable in assessing antioxidant capacity.<br\/>In addition, by measuring Total Antioxidant Capacity using spectrophotometric methods, a general idea of an individual\u2019s antioxidant capacity can be obtained. <\/p>\n<p>References:<br\/>1. Aslanko\u00e7 R, Demirci D, \u0130nan \u00dc, Y\u0131ld\u0131z M, \u00d6zt\u00fcrk A, \u00c7etin M, Savran E\u015e, Y\u0131lmaz B. The Role of Antioxidant Enzymes in Oxidative Stress\u2014Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), Catalase (Cat), and Glutathione Peroxidase (Gpx). Med J SDU 2019; 26(3): 362-369.<br\/>2. Tanakol A, Uzun\u00e7akmak TK, Kutlubay Z. Oxidative Stress and Aging. Dermatoz 2020;11(3):31-35.<br\/>3. \u00d6zcan O, Erdal H, \u00c7ak\u0131rca G, Y\u00f6nden Z. Oxidative Stress and Its Effects on Intracellular Structures. JClin Exp Invest 2015; 6 (3): 331-336.<br\/>4. D\u00fcndar Y. Oxidative Stress and Antioxidants in Medicine. ISBN: 9789757150299. Afyon Kocatepe University; Pub. No. 29. 2000.   <\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>OXIDATIVE STRESS, ASSOCIATED DISEASES, AND LABORATORY EVALUATION \u201cUnder normal physiological conditions, there is a balance between the free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are constantly produced in cells and the antioxidants that interact with them. A disruption of this balance in favor of free radicals and ROS\u2014that is, the accumulation of radicals such&#8230;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":13889,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[125],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-13888","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-blog"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/13888","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=13888"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/13888\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":13893,"href":"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/13888\/revisions\/13893"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/13889"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=13888"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=13888"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.izmiregelab.com\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=13888"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}